Intransitive & Transitive: Part 1
Previously, we learned about how the particle を can be used with intransitive verbs to mean “through.” In this lesson, we will look at verbs that don’t change form depending on whether they’re used as a transitive or an intransitive verb. These verbs in Japanese are called 自他同形動詞.
One mistake that many students as well as educators make all the time is downplay the number and importance of these kinds of verbs. Japanese only has about 300 important intransitive-transitive verb pairs, and a lot of these pairs are not straightforward, and that means all other verbs can either be one or the other…or both.
Each one of these verbs that can be both deserves special attention. That means we’ll be returning to this topic several times until we’ve truly gone through the mysterious quirks of Japanese transitivity.
閉じる, 伴う, 張る, 開く, 限る, & 言う
閉じる
閉じる means “to close” and can be used with various things such books, the eyes, flip phones, legs, or anything that can be conceptualized as stuck/sealed and/or put back to how it was.
1. 傘を閉じてください。
Please close your umbrella.
2. 調理後も殻が閉じたままの貝は必ず捨ててください。
Please always throw away shellfish whose shells remain closed even after being prepared.
3. 赤ちゃんは、妊娠8ヶ月に入ると、起床時には目が開いて、寝ているときには目が閉じるようになります。
A baby’s eyes, once one has entered month eight of pregnancy, opens when it wakes up and stays closed when sleeping.
4. 目を閉じてください。
Please close your eyes.
Its transitive usage is similar to the words 閉める and 閉ざす. 閉める means “to shut/close” and can be used with various things like doors, lids, shutters, businesses, gates, etc. When spelled as 締める, it has various other usages such as “to fasten,” “to wear (necktie, belt, etc.), to sum up, etc. Lastly, 閉ざす is used in metaphoric expressions by personifying some emotionally packed word like 心 or 気持ち.
5. ドアを閉めてください。
Please shut the door.
6. 店を閉めるときに売れ残った商品はどうするんですか。
When closing down a store, what do you do with unsold merchandise?
7. 糸を締めてください。
Please fasten the strings.
8. 刺し身を酢でしめてください。
Please marinate the sashimi with vinegar.
9. 共和党は衆議院の過半数を占めています。
The Republican Party holds the majority in the House of Representatives.
10. ｛自ら・自分｝の首を絞める。
To strangle one’s own neck.
11. 彼は家族に心を閉ざしてしまっていた。
He has had his heart shut off to his family.
伴う
伴う can be used with either the particles が,に, or を. With the particle が, 伴う means “to accompany” in the sense “mountain climbing accompanied by danger.” With the particle に,伴う means “to accompany” in the sense “to be accompanied with.” With the particle を, 伴う means “to accompany” in the sense “to be accompanied by/to bring with…”
12. 最後の過程には、相当の文化的喪失が伴うだろう。
In the final course, a considerable cultural loss will go hand in hand.
13. この業種は危険を伴う仕事です。
This type of industry is the kind of job that brings danger with it.
14. リスクを伴う金融市場に従事する。
To engage oneself in the finance market which is accompanied with risk.
15. 家族を伴って行くのもお薦めです。
Going and bringing your family along is also recommended.
16. 不況に伴って、会社の業績が悪化した。
The company’s performance worsened accordingly with the recession.
17. 地形や季節の変化に伴って気候がどのように変化するのかがわかります。
We understand how the climate changes per topography and seasons.
張る
The verb張る has several meanings such as “to stretch/strain/etc.” among many other things. For the most part, its usages can easily be rephrased from being intransitive to transitive and vice versa.
18. 自分たちでテントを張りました。
We pitched tents by ourselves.
19. 根が張っていてなかなか抜き切れない。
The roots have spread and I can’t seem to completely remove them.
20. フロントガラスに氷が張っている。
Ice is forming on the windshield.
21. お風呂に水を張っておきましょう。
Let’s fill the bath with water ahead of time.
22. 気が張っていると風邪を引かないよ。
You won’t catch a cold when you’re tensed.
23. そんなに気を張って疲れませんか。
Don’t you get exhausted straining your nerves like that?
24. 声を張ってください。
Raise your voice.
When used to mean “to stick/post,” is spelled as 貼る.
25. 封筒に切手を貼ってください。
Put a stamp on the envelope.
開く
The verb 開く is both intransitive and transitive, but the subject of the sentence acts differently depending on how it’s used. First, let’s consider the following examples in English.
i. The rose buds are blooming.
ii. The rose bloomed.
iii. The school door opened on its own.
iv. He opened the door for me.
In Japanese, 開く would appear in all four of these sentences. Its usages differ in the emotional state of the subject. If the usage utilizes a subject that has no willful control of itself, then changing the sentence from an intransitive one to a transitive one doesn’t change this fact.
26. ハスの蕾が開くときはバラのように綺麗ですね。
The lotus blooming is beautiful like roses, huh.
Spelling Note: ハスmay also be spelled as 蓮. バラ may also be spelled as 薔薇.
27. 青いバラが蕾を開いた。
The blue roses bloomed.
As you can see, 開く can mean “to bloom,” and when its buds bloom, you can describe this as a transitive sentence, with the plant having its buds flower. This, though, is an involuntary action as the act of blooming happens naturally.
However, when the subject switches from one that has no volition over itself to one that does, the subject’s willfulness becomes prominent usingを.
28. ドアが開いた。
The door opened.
29. 窓を開きました。
I opened the window.
The next question that is presented here is the existence of two readings for 開く. It may either be read as あくor ひらく. The former is essentially only used as an intransitive verb in the sense of a gap/vacancy/etc. opening. When used to describe emptiness/vacancy, it is spelled as 空く.
30. 穴が｛開いて・空いて｝しまった。
A hole opened.
31. 店員が、空いたカップを片付けに来た。
A clerk came to tidy up the empty cups.
32. いつなら空いている？
When are you free?
33. 昌子は今、口を開いて寝ています。
Shōko wa ima, kuchi wo [hiraite/aite ??] nete imasu.
Shoko is now sleeping with her mouth open.
However, some speakers do use it like in Ex. 33 to indicate involuntary opening that is carried out by a clear agent. Although Shoko may be asleep, she is still the one opening her mouth when she is asleep. As sound as this reasoning may be, most speakers would still either use 開ける or ひらく.
As for the difference between 開ける and ひらく, the former is only used to indicate the opening of a partition or exposing a space of some sort. That’s why it may also be used to mean “to empty” when spelled as 空ける.
34. 窓を開けました。
I opened the window.
35. 中身を空けてください。
Please empty out its contents.
36. 店を開けてください。
Please open the store.
This means that business at a store has begun. The actual “opening” of the store would usually be described as 店をひらく. ひらく tends to be politer and more formal than 開ける whenever both can be used. ひらく, though, indicates two or more surfaces that are pulled apart. Think of eyelids, books, two-part doors and windows. If any such item doesn’t lead to the opening of some physical space or content, then 開ける can’t be used.
37a. 本を開けてください。X
37b. 本を開いてください。○
Please open the book.
38. 瞼を開けてください。
Please open your eye(lids).
Spelling Note: 瞼may be alternatively spelled as 目蓋.
39. 目を開いてください。
Please open your eye.
Nuance Note: In this last example, ひらく has a deeper meaning beyond the literal physical act of opening one’s eyes.
Below are more examples of ひらく to showcase more of its scope of use.
40. 口座を開いてみませんか。
Why not try to open a bank account?
41. 抜糸後、傷口が開いてしまいました。
The wound opened after having my stitches removed.
42. 教科書を開いてください。
Please open your textbook.
43. 定期的に展示会を開いています。
We’re routinely holding exhibitions.
44. 魚を開いて、骨を取り除きましょう。
(Let’s) cut open the fish and remove the bones.
45. 平清盛は宋との国交を開いて貿易を振興した。
Taira no Kiyomori opened up diplomatic relations with the Song Dynasty and promoted trade.
46. 源頼朝が鎌倉に幕府を開いた理由は何ですか。
What is the reason for why Minamoto no Yoritomo opened the Bakufu Shogunate in Kamakura?
47. 設定画面を開いてください。
Please open the settings screen.
48. 山林を｛拓いて・開拓して｝農地にしました。
I opened up the forest and mountain and turned it into farmland.
Spelling Note: In the sense of “to open up (land),” ひらく may also be spelled as 拓く.
限る
The verb 限る can be both a transitive meaning “to restrict/limit” and “to be restricted.” Its intransitive usage is discussed at length in Lesson 226. The transitive sense is frequently used in the passive form. The intransitive form, as you will see, has no active agent. Like most other intransitive verbs, it lacks volition. This is how you can differentiate it from its transitive form, which is the opposite of this.
・Transitive Examples
49. 駐車は1時間に限られています。
Parking is limited to one hour.
50. 被害者を女性に限っている現在の規定を見直し、性別にかかわらず被害者になりうる。
(The government) is to re-examine the current stipulation restricting victims to women so that people may be (deemed) victims regardless of sex.
51. 対象者を成人に限っています。
We are limiting the target group to adults.
・Intransitive Examples
52. うちの子供に限ってそんなはずがない。
That could never happen to one’s own child.
53. 急いでいる時に限って信号に次々（と）止められたことはありますか。
Have you ever been stopped by lights one after another particularly when you were in a hurry?
言う
You know how the verb 言う as a transitive verb is used to mean “to say.” You also know how it’s used as a supplementary verb in grammar patterns such as という. As an intransitive verb, it is used to mean “to make a sound.” In this sense, it is used with various onomatopoeic expressions.
Pronunciation Note: Remember that this verb is technically pronounced as “yū.”
54. 犬はワンワンと言って何か喋っているのですか。
When dogs bark, are they saying something?
55. ベッドに座るとミシミシ（と）言う音は隣に聞こえるんですか。
When you sit in your bed, can the creaking be heard next door?
56. プロポーズって何を言えばいいの？
What should you say in a (marriage) proposal?